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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Postsynaptic potential</span></span>

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<p><b>Postsynaptic potentials</b> are changes in the <a href="Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a> of the postsynaptic terminal of a <a href="Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">chemical synapse</a>. Postsynaptic potentials are <a href="Graded_potential" title="Graded potential">graded potentials</a>, and should not be confused with <a href="Action_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Action potentials">action potentials</a> although their function is to initiate or inhibit action potentials. Postsynaptic potentials occur when the presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters into the <a href="Synaptic_cleft" class="mw-redirect" title="Synaptic cleft">synaptic cleft</a>. These neurotransmitters bind to <a href="Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a> on the postsynaptic terminal, which may be a <a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>, or a <a href="Myocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocyte">muscle cell</a> in the case of a <a href="Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are collectively referred to as postsynaptic receptors, since they are located on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell. Postsynaptic potentials are important mechanisms by which neurons communicate with each other allowing for information processing, learning, memory formation, and complex behavior within the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ion_Involvement">Ion Involvement</h2></div>

<p>Ions can create excitatory or inhibitory potentials due to their unique reversal potentials and the membrane's permeability to each ion. The <a href="Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a> and <a href="Goldman_equation" title="Goldman equation">Goldman equation</a> can calculate membrane potential differences based on ion concentration, offering predictions into how ions can affect postsynaptic potentials.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ions are subject to two main forces, <a href="Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> and <a href="Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatic repulsion</a>. Ions will tend towards their <a href="Membrane_potential#Reversal_potential" title="Membrane potential">equilibrium potential</a>, which is the state where the diffusion force cancels out the force of electrostatic repulsion. When a membrane is at its equilibrium potential, there is no longer a net movement of ions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Neurons have a <a href="Resting_potential" title="Resting potential">resting potential</a> of about −70 mV. When a neurotransmitter binds to a postsynaptic receptor, this can lead to the opening or closing of ion channels, allowing ions to flow inside or outside of the cell, changing the membrane potential. When an ion channel opens and there is a net gain of positively charged ions, like sodium (Na<sup>+</sup>) and calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>), that flow into the cell, this creates <a href="Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">excitatory postsynaptic potentials</a> (EPSP) that depolarize the cell membrane increasing the likelihood of an action potential by bringing the neuron's potential closer to its firing threshold (about -55 mV).

</p><p>The opposite can happen when the opening of ion channels results in the flow of negatively charged ions, like chloride (Cl<sup>−</sup>), into the cell, or positively charged ions, like potassium (K<sup>+</sup>), to flow out of the cell, creating <a href="Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">inhibitory postsynaptic potentials</a> (IPSP) that hyperpolarize the cell membrane, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential by bringing the neuron's potential further away from its firing threshold.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It is important to note that neurotransmitters are not inherently excitatory or inhibitory. A single neurotransmitter can bind to different types of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, opening or closing specific ion channels coupled to the receptor.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_Action_Potentials">Relation to Action Potentials</h2></div>

<p>EPSPs and IPSPs are transient changes in the membrane potential. These changes in membrane potential occur at the postsynaptic membrane located on the dendrites or cell body of a neuron, specifically at the <a href="Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> where it receives signals from a presynaptic neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-Henley_Postsynaptic_Potentials_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henley_Postsynaptic_Potentials-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EPSPs resulting from neurotransmitter release at a single synapse are generally too small to trigger an action potential spike in the postsynaptic neuron. However, a neuron may receive synaptic inputs from hundreds, if not thousands, of other neurons, with varying amounts of simultaneous input, so the combined activity of afferent neurons can cause large fluctuations in membrane potential or <a href="Subthreshold_membrane_potential_oscillations" title="Subthreshold membrane potential oscillations">subthreshold membrane potential oscillations</a>. If the postsynaptic cell is sufficiently depolarized, an <a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> will occur. For example, in <a href="Low-threshold_spikes" title="Low-threshold spikes">low-threshold spikes</a> depolarizations by the <a href="T-type_calcium_channel" title="T-type calcium channel">T-type calcium channel</a> occur at low, negative, membrane depolarizations resulting in the neuron reaching the threshold. Action potentials are not graded; they are an all-or-none response.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Algebraic_summation">Algebraic summation</h2></div>

<p>Postsynaptic potentials are <a href="Graded_potential" title="Graded potential">graded potentials</a>, meaning that signals don't fully propagate down the neuron and decrease in strength as they spread along the membrane. Graded potentials can summate in space or in time to generate a large enough response to reach <a href="Threshold_potential" title="Threshold potential">action potential threshold.</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Postsynaptic potentials undergo spatial and temporal summation due to their graded nature.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b><a href="Spatial_summation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spatial summation">Spatial summation</a></b>: When inputs are received simultaneously at nearby synapses, their postsynaptic potentials combine. Multiple excitatory inputs combine resulting in greater membrane depolarization (more positive). Multiple inhibitory inputs combine and deepen hyperpolarization of the membrane (more negative). If the cell is receiving both inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials, they can cancel each other out, or one can be stronger than the other, and the membrane potential will change by the difference between them.

</p><p><b><a href="Temporal_summation" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal summation">Temporal summation</a></b>: When a single synapse inputs that are close together in time, their potentials are also added together. Thus, if a neuron receives an excitatory postsynaptic potential, and then the presynaptic neuron fires again, creating another EPSP, then the membrane of the postsynaptic cell is depolarized by the total sum of all the EPSPs fired, potentially bringing it closer to threshold for firing an action potential.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Termination">Termination</h2></div>

<p>Termination of postsynaptic potentials begins when the neurotransmitter detaches from its receptor, allowing the receptor to return to its resting state. After the neurotransmitter detaches from the receptor, the neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft can either be degraded by enzymes (e.g., acetylcholinesterase for acetylcholine) or can be taken back into the presynaptic neuron through reuptake mechanisms (e.g., EEAT glutamate transporters). Once the neurotransmitter is no longer bound to the receptor, the ion channels that were opened by receptor binding close, stopping ion flow. The membrane potential then returns to its resting membrane potential as ion concentrations normalize by diffusion and active transport mechanisms like the <a href="Sodium%E2%80%93potassium_pump" title="Sodium–potassium pump">sodium-potassium pump</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postsynaptic_Potential_Applications">Postsynaptic Potential Applications</h2></div>

<p>Postsynaptic potentials are essential in how the brain processes information, integrates signals, and coordinates complex behaviors. These temporary changes in a neuron's membrane potential determine if a neuron will fire an action potential which allows neurons to communicate within neural circuits. The balance between EPSPs and IPSPs are necessary for maintaining neural stability and function. There are many different applications of postsynaptic potentials.

</p><p><b>Neural Communication and Integration:</b> Postsynaptic potentials allow neurons to integrate inputs from thousands of synapses, functioning as a "decision-making unit" within the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Henley_Postsynaptic_Potentials_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henley_Postsynaptic_Potentials-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b>Learning and Memory:</b> Neuroplasticity is the key mechanism whereby learning and memory happens. When neurons consistently fire together, their synaptic connections strengthen, a principle known as <a href="Hebbian_theory" title="Hebbian theory">Hebbian theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">Long-term potentiation</a> (LTP) is one mechanism where repeated EPSPs occur, strengthening neural circuits involved in learning, allowing the brain to store information more effectively. <a href="Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">Long-term depression</a> (LTD) is another mechanism where IPSPs occur weakening less-used synapses, refining learning by filtering out unnecessary information.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b>Motor Control:</b> Postsynaptic potentials in motor neurons integrate signals from the brain and spinal cord to coordinate muscle movement. During voluntary movement, EPSPs activate motor neurons, while IPSPs inhibit opposing muscle groups to make sure smooth motion occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b>Neurodevelopment and Recovery:</b> In neurodevelopmental and recovery processes, postsynaptic plasticity abilities allow neural pathways to rewire, leading to improved motor skills, language recovery, and adapted cognitive strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><b>Pharmacology and Neurological Treatments:</b> Improved understanding of postsynaptic potentials has guided the development of drugs that modulate synaptic strength to help in neurodegenerative diseases, depression, anxiety, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">Action potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Goldman_equation" title="Goldman equation">Goldman equation</a></li>

<li><a href="Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">Membrane potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Nernst_equation" title="Nernst equation">Nernst equation</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuron</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Postsynaptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Postsynaptic">Postsynaptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></li>

<li><a href="End-plate_potential" title="End-plate potential">End-plate potential</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=Postsynaptic+Potentials">Postsynaptic+Potentials</a> at the U.S. National Library of Medicine <a href="Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">Medical Subject Headings</a> (MeSH)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZoteyAndhaleShegekarJuganavar2023" class="citation journal cs1">Zotey, Vaishnavi; Andhale, Amol; Shegekar, Tejas; Juganavar, Anup (24 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10598326">"Adaptive Neuroplasticity in Brain Injury Recovery: Strategies and Insights"</a>. <i>Cureus</i>. <b>15</b> (9): e45873. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7759%2Fcureus.45873">10.7759/cureus.45873</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10598326">10598326</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37885532">37885532</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZhangZhangWangXia2024" class="citation journal cs1">Zhang, Jifa; Zhang, Yinglu; Wang, Jiaxing; Xia, Yilin; Zhang, Jiaxian; Chen, Lei (23 August 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11344989">"Recent advances in Alzheimer's disease: mechanisms, clinical trials and new drug development strategies"</a>. <i>Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy</i>. <b>9</b> (1): 211. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41392-024-01911-3">10.1038/s41392-024-01911-3</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11344989">11344989</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39174535">39174535</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDumanAghajanianSanacoraKrystal2016" class="citation journal cs1">Duman, Ronald S; Aghajanian, George K; Sanacora, Gerard; Krystal, John H (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405628">"Synaptic plasticity and depression: new insights from stress and rapid-acting antidepressants"</a>. <i>Nature Medicine</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">238–</span>249. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm.4050">10.1038/nm.4050</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405628">5405628</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26937618">26937618</a>.</cite></span>

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</style><div id="Physiology_of_the_nervous_system66" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiology of the <a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primarily CNS</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arousal" title="Arousal">Arousal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Wakefulness" title="Wakefulness">Wakefulness</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">Intracranial pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">Lateralization of brain function</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleep" title="Sleep">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primarily PNS</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Reflex" title="Reflex">Reflex</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_nervous_system" title="Sensory nervous system">Sensation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">Evoked potential</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bereitschaftspotential" title="Bereitschaftspotential">Bereitschaftspotential</a></li>

<li><a href="Evoked_potential" title="Evoked potential">Auditory evoked potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_evoked_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory evoked potentials">Somatosensory evoked potentials</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_evoked_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual evoked potential">Visual evoked potential</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other short term</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">Neurotransmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Chronaxie" title="Chronaxie">Chronaxie</a></li>

<li><a href="Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">Membrane potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Action_potential" title="Action potential">Action potential</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">Excitatory</a></li>

<li><a href="Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">Inhibitory</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Long term</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Axoplasmic_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Axoplasmic transport">Axoplasmic transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroregeneration" title="Neuroregeneration">Neuroregeneration</a>/Nerve regeneration</li>

<li><a href="Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a>/<a href="Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">Synaptic plasticity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">Long-term potentiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">Long-term depression</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Myelinogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Myelinogenesis">Myelinogenesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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